Habitat predicts reproductive superfetation and body shape in the livebearing fish Poeciliopsis turrubarensis

Superfetation, the ability of females to simultaneously carry more than one brood at different developmental stages, is an unusual reproductive strategy that has independently evolved several times in the livebearing fish family Poeciliidae. Why this strategy has evolved remains uncertain. One hypothesis is that superfetation is a response to selective pressures that constrain the physical space within a female in which her offspring can develop. This hypothesis is reasonable, because superfetation should reduce the total volume needed to house developing embryos that is, fewer large, fully developed embryos will be held by a superfetating female (with several broods at different developmental stages) than a non-superfetating female (where all embryos reach a fully developed stage at the same time). In this study, we explore this ‘morphological constraint’ hypothesis of superfetation by examining the livebearing fish, Poeciliopsis turrubarensis . We found that populations vary markedly in degree of superfetation, with individuals carrying from two to four distinct broods across different geographic areas. These populations also occupy a range of habitat types: some populations occur in slow moving coastal rivers near the ocean, while other populations occur far inland in fast moving waters that drain steep mountain environments. In comparing populations from these two types of environments, we find a strong association between stream habitat type and the degree of superfetation within populations. Fish from inland populations have higher levels of superfetation than their coastal counterparts. In addition, geometric morphometric analysis revealed that inland populations are also more fusiform than fish from coastal locations. Combined, these two lines of evidence support the ‘morphological constraint’ hypothesis, and suggest that the life history strategy of superfetation could be driven by environmental pressures that favor a more streamlined phenotype.